Prior to the terms phonological competence and discourse competence are introduced, the term communicative competence was proposed by the sociallinguist Dell Hymes in 1974 as an alternative to Chomsky's linguistic competence. The term communicative competence is widely used to describe the ability to apply grammatical, discourse and cultural knowledge to communicate effectively in particular contexts for particular purposes. Since then, the terms are further elaborated with other jargons; such as phonological competence and discourse competence (Richards, Platt and Weber 1985, Cited in Nunan 1999:226).
The terms, phonological and discourse competences reveal the details of individual pronunciation work, that works with the segmental and suprasegmental aspects of the oral skills. Both terms deal directly with the ways how sounds are produced to decode meaning. The skills of pronunciation look into the features; such as segmental phonology (individual sounds) and suprasegmental phonology (stress, rhythm and intonation).
Pennington (1990:549) proposed that “the acquisition of phonological competence and discourse competence goes hand-in-hand”. Leather (1990, cited in Pennington, 1994:100) comments that without the opportunity for testing a developing prototype in perception and/or production, the learner might cease at early stage to exploit potential for progressively modifying or fine-tuning model of the acquired language. In other words, it is necessary for trainers to provide learners with the learning platform and tools to experiment both the phonological and discourse skills and knowledge in acquiring the English language.
To be able to speak and listen in a second language, it is clear that language learners need something other than a general phonemic correctness which is essential elements of communication. Learners need to further enhance the ability to comprehend and produce good pronunciation using appropriate stress, intonation, rhythm, and pacing, and to use gestures and body language appropriately; in other words, to have both linguistic and sociolinguistic competence (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Goodwin, 1996; Florez, 1999) while producing speech sounds.
To Hong Kong students, the communicative competence is the aspect that school training focuses on. The effective use on English functions is what the English curriculum puts emphasis on. The related language functions or uses stress their training on ways to communicate with friends, to make calls, to get information, to attend interviews, to talk to others, etc. It is still not common for school English teachers to work, so to enhance students' phonological competence and discourse competence. These deal with the sound and pronunciation patterns of the target language, i.e. the "standard" English, or even the pronunciation patterns of a unique English spoken by a unique group of speakers, such as Hong Kong ESL learners.
Tuesday, 18 December 2007
Accent Analysis and Modification
One of the interesting findings of my literature reviews regarding the pronunciation instruction dealing with accent reduction is a need for explicit training on producing the expected sound and pronunciation patterns of the target language. Accordingly, such instruction should help adjust producing a range of specific language features. Speakers can learn to apply and relate it's vocal-setting information to their sound production.
A need to raise one's awareness on the sound patterns and the accurate phonological knowledge is crucial for accent modification. The proposed study was firstly published with the title, "Some Perspective on Accent: Range of Voice Quality Variation, the Periphery, and Focusing" by John H. Esling in 1994 . Although the proposed approach is still in the stage of further exploration and enhancement, the pedagogical implication is a potentially rewarding area for language learners.
The accent analysis and modification presented by a descriptive taxonomy for the range of voice quality settings and the underlying influence of linguistic model on the pronunciation performance of individual L2 speakers are another contemporary issues to address in English language education.
The issue of language behaviour was also discussed by Pennington (1990),
In Hong Kong, community knowledge has been augmented and recreated in dual and mixed forms of language and communication representing qualitative changes in how people talk and write, and what they talk and write about.
As one looks into the language behavior, apart from the language switching, mixing, and borrowing, most students encountered the lack of training in working out the errors though they are aware of the own mistakes and urge to correct or fix the problems as far as they can.
To speak with appropriate accent requires both knowledge and skills. Learners should be trained to produce right speech patterns both mentally and physically. The skills take account into the phoneme level of voice production, word pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm. Learners must be familiar with the basic sounds of spoken English, and able to identify the sounds that are challenging for them. Learners should also get training in ways to properly sound vowels and consonants.
A need to raise one's awareness on the sound patterns and the accurate phonological knowledge is crucial for accent modification. The proposed study was firstly published with the title, "Some Perspective on Accent: Range of Voice Quality Variation, the Periphery, and Focusing" by John H. Esling in 1994 . Although the proposed approach is still in the stage of further exploration and enhancement, the pedagogical implication is a potentially rewarding area for language learners.
The accent analysis and modification presented by a descriptive taxonomy for the range of voice quality settings and the underlying influence of linguistic model on the pronunciation performance of individual L2 speakers are another contemporary issues to address in English language education.
The issue of language behaviour was also discussed by Pennington (1990),
In Hong Kong, community knowledge has been augmented and recreated in dual and mixed forms of language and communication representing qualitative changes in how people talk and write, and what they talk and write about.
As one looks into the language behavior, apart from the language switching, mixing, and borrowing, most students encountered the lack of training in working out the errors though they are aware of the own mistakes and urge to correct or fix the problems as far as they can.
To speak with appropriate accent requires both knowledge and skills. Learners should be trained to produce right speech patterns both mentally and physically. The skills take account into the phoneme level of voice production, word pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm. Learners must be familiar with the basic sounds of spoken English, and able to identify the sounds that are challenging for them. Learners should also get training in ways to properly sound vowels and consonants.
Models for Pronunciation Instruction
To Hong Kong teachers and students, a good pronunciation instruction need to address the issues, such as the acceptable standard of teachers and / or students’ speech and pronunciation, inter-language effect on accents, and the lack of environmental support for speaking English. The recent public debates regarding the falling standard of English in Hong Kong highlight the vulnerability of the lack of consensus on the acceptable standard for the models for English in the local context. One of the newspapers article expressed such concerns.
Hong Kong seems to present English teachers - local and foreign alike - with sometimes conflicting expectations about their roles. Many are left uncertain whose standards they should apply, let alone be able to determine whether they ought to be seen as models for learning English in the local context.
The syllabus specifications concerning pronunciation rule that "no noticeable first language characteristics" be one of the primary factors for determining whether someone's speech is "error-free". This in turn presupposes "native-like" pronunciation is a prerequisite for the highest award of level 5 attainment, with the assumption that some of the so-called "native varieties" are the standards against which candidates' proficiency is measured. (South China Morning Post, 2007:11)
Since the pronunciation performance of individual L2 speakers can be shaped by the underlying model of the instructions or training and the unique language patterns emerged from a society implementing the bi-literate trilingual policy, the need to make the case for the recognition of Hong Kong English (Bolton: 2002) can be a direction to pursue in the near future.
Hong Kong seems to present English teachers - local and foreign alike - with sometimes conflicting expectations about their roles. Many are left uncertain whose standards they should apply, let alone be able to determine whether they ought to be seen as models for learning English in the local context.
The syllabus specifications concerning pronunciation rule that "no noticeable first language characteristics" be one of the primary factors for determining whether someone's speech is "error-free". This in turn presupposes "native-like" pronunciation is a prerequisite for the highest award of level 5 attainment, with the assumption that some of the so-called "native varieties" are the standards against which candidates' proficiency is measured. (South China Morning Post, 2007:11)
Since the pronunciation performance of individual L2 speakers can be shaped by the underlying model of the instructions or training and the unique language patterns emerged from a society implementing the bi-literate trilingual policy, the need to make the case for the recognition of Hong Kong English (Bolton: 2002) can be a direction to pursue in the near future.
Monday, 17 December 2007
Pronunciation Training and Instruction in Hong Kong
Pronunciation instruction and training in Hong Kong generally focus on enhancing communicative competence. The speaking and pronunciation is an integral component in the school curriculum; The communicative competence can be divided into a transactional and interactional components of the core English lesson. Transactional talk is the kind of talk to get thing done whereas the interactional language is produced for social purposes (Nunan 2003)
As a result, the enhancement work mainly helps raise the level of communicative competency that focuses on the functional training components. The 2007's English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6), suggests that English language education will help students: “present information, ideas, intended meanings, views, attitudes and feeling clearly, coherently and appropriately in a variety of context; participate effectively in an oral interaction.”
A typical pronunciation lesson adopts task-based approach conducting activities; such as, group discussions, role-plays, presentations, debates, or quizzes. The learning tasks mostly focus on getting the message across activities rather than getting the enunciation and intonation correctness. In fact, such speaking criteria or training elements can usually see in the assessment sheets prepared for assessing individual oral presentation.
As a result, the enhancement work mainly helps raise the level of communicative competency that focuses on the functional training components. The 2007's English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6), suggests that English language education will help students: “present information, ideas, intended meanings, views, attitudes and feeling clearly, coherently and appropriately in a variety of context; participate effectively in an oral interaction.”
A typical pronunciation lesson adopts task-based approach conducting activities; such as, group discussions, role-plays, presentations, debates, or quizzes. The learning tasks mostly focus on getting the message across activities rather than getting the enunciation and intonation correctness. In fact, such speaking criteria or training elements can usually see in the assessment sheets prepared for assessing individual oral presentation.
Hong Kong English
There are a number of recent research regarding some distinctive features of phonology of Hong Kong English (HKE). They are mainly conducted by the following researchers: Bolton and Kwok, 2000; Peng and Setter, 2000; Hung, 2002 . The findings indicate the existence of a “Hong Kong English” with systematic features of its own. According to Hung, the phonemics inventory of HKE is somehow a simplified version of the British Received Pronunciation with some influence of Cantonese.
Accordingly, the phonology study on Hong Kong learners mostly are mostly on the error analysis. Learners are prompted to phonological errors. The studies were conducted at different phases and under different tasks or specifications imposed on them. The findings include the substitution of /n/ for initial /l/, or /w/ for /v/ (Luke and Richards, 1998 cited in Hung, 2002:120) and the deletion of alveolar stops in consonants clusters in specific morphophonemic context (Peng and Setter, 2002 cited in Hung, 2002:120).
Accordingly, the phonology study on Hong Kong learners mostly are mostly on the error analysis. Learners are prompted to phonological errors. The studies were conducted at different phases and under different tasks or specifications imposed on them. The findings include the substitution of /n/ for initial /l/, or /w/ for /v/ (Luke and Richards, 1998 cited in Hung, 2002:120) and the deletion of alveolar stops in consonants clusters in specific morphophonemic context (Peng and Setter, 2002 cited in Hung, 2002:120).
Monday, 10 December 2007
Scaffolding Techniques in Practice
Introduction
The web-based or the e-learning mode is gaining more and more weight. More students in Hong Kong are seeking for alternative ways to improve their English skills; especially the ones involve audio training, such as listening and pronunciation skills.
However, only limited “suitable” e-learning or web-based materials are available for students to be used in self-access learning centre, there is a need for quality materials to cater for students’ need.
To identify quality and useful web-based materials becomes necessary. As the provision is so limited, there is a great discrepancy between students’ learning style and the existing teaching style of teachers.
Purpose of Study / Focus of Discussion
The aim of the paper is to discuss means of identifying quality web-based English speaking and pronunciation learning materials. The practice of adopting scaffolding techniques will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the materials investigated in the study.
Scaffolding in educational context
According to the ERIC, The Education Resources Information Center of the US, scaffolding is defined as a "temporary support or assistance, provided by a teacher, peer, parent, or computer, that permits a learner to perform a complex task or process that he or she would be unable to do alone -- the technique builds knowledge/skills until learners can stand on their own."
Web-based scaffolding Environment
"A scaffolded integrated tool environment is a comprehensive environment that integrates several computer tools behind a single task-based user interface aimed at scaffolding the educational inquiry process for students. Tools include animation capability, and integrating tools for mapping, web searching, model-building and data warehouses. The process of scaffolding helps students see "what to do" with the tools and understand the complex process of science inquiry. Such environments are designed with a task-based user interface that attempts to "visualize the process" of inquiry to students."
Two Case Studies
1. Streaming Speech - CD_Rom Software
2. Web-based English Pronunciation program developed by the English Language Centre of Hong Kong Polytechnic University
The data were mainly collected from the program itself, the Teacher's Guide, and Student's Book. I tried to review various chapters of the instructional materials of the program itself, the teaching ideas provided in the Teacher's Guide, and the exercises of the student’s book. I also analyse the verbal feedback collected from five undergraduate students taking the SAP (Speaking Assistance Programme) offered by the ELC in May 2004.
The program was introduced while meeting students to improve their speaking and listening skills.
The concept, known as scaffolding or “teacher-talk” was employed to investigate the pedagogical value of the program to the students. The concept relies very much on the fact that quality learning requires useful feedback supports in the learning process. The accumulation of knowledge or skills is compared with the construction of a building. It will not be sophisticatedly developed without a temporary supporting framework to assist the builders.
In teaching, scaffolding can be considered as the framework that facilitate, monitor, and protect the skills and knowledge that are being transferred. The “scaffolding” in the e-teaching / web-based and learning facilitates engage both the vertical (teacher-talk) and sequential (practice-related activities) learning actions.
Vertical Scaffolding (i.e. Teacher-talk)
As the program is mainly designed for advanced learners, most of the teaching contents are self-explanatory to advanced readers. It can be effective to learners who enjoy reading and can easily get information from their reading. To the five students, they either didn’t really enjoy reading or reject the ideas of spending time reading texts they considered not so as effective as an authentic teacher talk.
Although there are a number of “teacher-talk” like supports that include Introduction of the Program, User Manuel, Student Book, and Teacher Book. The design of its package provision did not really match the students’ learning style. They reported that without teacher’s talk, they could not use the software so effectively and confidently on their own. Their learning interest could not be sustained without teacher guidance; i.e. the mechanism of the “feedforward” in the program itself seemed not really working on them.
Exercises and self-assessment charts were helpful, but the recorded data were only stored in temporary location, known as COOKIES of the computer. There was no real impact on users if they failed to achieve the performance criteria, which I must admit is one of the shortcomings of most educational software. Unless users can feel a genuine need or excitement in engaging in the learning tasks, i.e. experiencing improvement or excitement while working with the program; their motivation of using the software cannot be sustained.
However, it was found that the program helped facilitate the enhancement of learners’ listening skills and helped improve their confidence in listening to native speakers. The audio data, i.e. natural spontaneous speech and the related exercises contributes themselves in assisting students to learn.
Sequential Scaffolding (i.e. practice-related activities)
To get a better picture of the learning exercises, I reviewed the learning content-pages, self-assessment quiz/exercises, and help pages and examined how the contents were accompanied by the learning tasks to achieve the sets of goals defined according to the program:
Learning Contents -two Sets of Goals of Streaming Speech
Listening
According to the software brief, the two aims of the learning are
- To make learners familiar and comfortable with the stream of speech (at speeds up to 450 words per minutes) and the way in which this stream is shaped by the speaker to communicate meanings.
- To improve the learners' perception of words in the stream of speech. To show how speakers change the sound-shapes of words. To show the relationship between slow and fast speech.
Pronunciation - To help learners improve their ability to produce flowing stretches of speech, at natural speeds, and patterned in a way which effectively communicates their meanings and maintains the interest of their listeners.
- To improve the accuracy of vowels and consonants within the stream of speech. To increase the learners' confidence to speak by presenting natural models of rhythm and intonation. To increase the learners' confidence to speak by providing them with strategies to compose speech in real-time.
The authentic contents of Ch1-9 with natural spontaneous speech were well received by students. Students also liked the idea of practices on their own by using the recording features of the software to improve their listening and pronunciation skills. However, they thought the program helped improve mainly their listening skill and some pronunciation skill.
The chunking and streaming techniques introduced helped raise students' awareness of the sound patterns of authentic speech. However, the notation of the pronunciation was not fully introduced. It was difficult for students to achieve accuracy by simply reading the explanation and doing recording without further assistance from teachers. Without teacher intervention, it's difficult for learners to identify various strategies to compose their own speech in real-time.
References
Chamot, A. U. & O’Malley, M. (1994). The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
References
Applebee, A. N., & Larger, J. A. (1983). Instructional scaffolding: Reading and writing as natural language activities. Language Arts, 60(2), 168-175.
Hiddink, G. Developing the concept of Units of Learning Material in multimedia databases. Enschede, University of Twente, Centre for Telematics and Information Technology. [WWW document] URL http://utto212.to.utwente.nl/ULM/ULM.html
Perkins, D. N. (1991). Technology meets constructivism: Do they make a marriage? Educational Technology, 31(5), 18-23.
Pieters, J. M., Bergman, R. (1995). The Empirical Basis of Designing Instruction. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 118-129.
Vygotksy, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., and Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, p. 89-100.
Zhao, R. (1997, April). Implementing scaffolding in computer tutors. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (April, 1997) Chicago, IL. [WWW document] URL http://lpsl1.coe.uga.edu:80/zhaopage/interest.htm
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)